Concept Of Reciprocity In Discourse Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Concept Of Reciprocity In Discourse - Assignment Example These morphemes imply some kind of a back and forth movement. ‘Reciprocity’ is also related to feedback, interaction and causality. In a speech situation when a speaker puts across his message, the hearer listens to it and signals that he has heard it. This is the feedback. This takes place constantly between the speaker and the listener, and there is interaction among them. The response of a speaker depends upon what he hears. The speech is a cause and the response is the effect. Hence, there is causality involved in reciprocity. 2. Concept Of Reciprocity In Discourse A speech situation involves a speaker and a listener. â€Å"Reciprocity condition of speech refers to the relation between the speaker and the listener in the process of speech.† ( Bygate, 1987 ) Speech is a reciprocal activity. At this point, it is necessary to differentiate between speech and writing. The way language is organized in speech is different from the way it is organized in writing. In order to speak fluently, a speaker must have grammatical competency which includes knowledge of vocabulary, pronunciation, sentence structure and meaning. But speaking does not mean merely putting together words in a grammatical structure. The capacity to use language appropriately is called communicative competence. It is the knowledge that underlines the use of grammatical competence in communicative situations. Speech situation consists of various factors like topic, purpose, social relations, environment etc. These differ from culture to culture and community to community. In sh ort, â€Å"speaking is not a discrete skill. It overlaps a number of other areas. Structure of conversation is culturally determined.† ( Hughes, R., 2002 ) Now let us look closely at what happens when two people speak. The speaker has a message which he encodes and transmits to the listener through speech. The listener listens to the speech and decodes the message. The listener then responds in the same way, by transmitting a message. Hence, the speaker becomes the listener and vice versa. An individual takes turns at being a speaker and a listener alternately. This is called ‘turn taking’. In a speech event, the participants are face-to-face and the turn-taking is a continuous process. Hence, we see that casual conversations are also organized by rules. People take turns at speaking and listening, they answer questions, mark the beginning and end of a conversation, make mistakes and correct themselves. All this needs some kind of direction and control on the par t of the speakers. People do not say – I have finished now. You can answer my question. Conversations are organized covertly and the organizational principles provide a discreet interactional framework. It is within this framework that reciprocity takes place. â€Å"Reciprocity develops during the ongoing negotiation of meaning between speaker and listener, thus producing a joint construction of communication.† ( Byrne D., 1987 ) Reciprocity involves the use of turn-taking skills, strategies to interrupt and to control the topic, which are necessary to maintain meaningful interaction. During conversations, individuals follow norms like politeness principles and co-operative principles. They also reciprocate each others’ verbal and non-verbal behavior. In a social intercourse, people are obligated to help and not to harm those who help them. Social activity is also reciprocal and ubiquitous. The ability to appropriately reciprocate or compensate a partner’ s communicative response is an essential element of communicative

Explain how the relationship between the dose of drug given to an Essay

Explain how the relationship between the dose of drug given to an individual and the concentration of drug molecules - Essay Example These factors are discussed in more detail below, based on the description of Goodman, et al. (2011, ch. 2). The characteristics of the drug molecule itself that affect the drug’s concentration at the receptor site include its molecular size, degree of ionization, lipid solubility, and its affinity for serum and tissue proteins. The plasma membrane (of skin or intestinal cells, for example) is a common barrier to drug distribution; drugs that are not lipid soluble will not be able to permeate the membrane and not reach the target site. A drug of small molecular size will travel more easily through the membranes than a larger molecule, reaching the target in higher concentrations. Ionized molecules, and those that bind to proteins, also have difficulties in passing through the membrane. If the drug has a tendency to ionize at the pH of the intestinal lumen or the blood, the ionized form will have difficulty passing through lipid plasma membranes. If the drug interacts with tran sporter proteins on the cell membrane, its uptake into the cell may be increased or decreased, depending on the direction in which the transporter moves the drug. For example, the P-glycoprotein in enterocytes limits the oral absorption of some cancer chemotherapeutic agents by exporting them back into the lumen of the GI tract. Similarly, it has been found that multidrug transporters such as P-glycoprotein (PGP) and members of the multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) family are over-expressed in capillary endothelial cells in epileptogenic brain tissue, and, by transporting anti-epileptic drugs out, these proteins may be responsible for the pharmacoresistance of the epileptic brain to anti-epileptic drugs (LÃ ¶scher and Potschka, 2002). ... transporters such as P-glycoprotein (PGP) and members of the multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) family are over-expressed in capillary endothelial cells in epileptogenic brain tissue, and, by transporting anti-epileptic drugs out, these proteins may be responsible for the pharmacoresistance of the epileptic brain to anti-epileptic drugs (Loscher and Potschka, 2002). If a drug is capable of binding to plasma proteins such as albumin, then some of the drug molecules in the bloodstream bind to the proteins, while the remaining unbound drug molecules are available to reach equilibrium across all membranes and reach the target receptor. Thus, plasma protein binding limits the concentration of the drug at its site of action. When the site of action of concern is the brain, the capability of the drug to cross the blood-brain barrier determines the concentration of administered drug that can reach the target. The more lipophilic the drug in its unbound, non-ionized form, the great er will be its ability to pass through the endothelial cells forming the blood-brain barrier, and thus the higher will be its bioavailability in the brain. How the route of administration affects the fraction of the drug dose that reaches the target is also important. The most common route of administration is oral, however, this route has several implications on bioavailability, and the dose swallowed will not entirely reach the target site. Only a fraction of the ingested drug is absorbed from the intestine, depending on the factors discussed in the previous paragraph. As more absorption takes place in the intestine than the stomach, any factor that increases stomach emptying (such as such as lying down on the right side and level of physical activity) increases drug absorption as the

Characteristics of the Peruvian Culture

Characteristics of the Peruvian Culture Peru is a Spanish speaking country surrounded by beautiful geography and has a spectacular cultural contrast. The country houses over 23 million residents consisting of Spanish settlers, and the native Inca and among all other countries ranks 19th in population size (PeruFacts). Peru is a quite diverse because of its unique climate, natural characteristics and cultural variation. The native Indian and Spanish roots cultivate the modern Peruvian society, which today accommodates three languages ranging from Spanish, Native Quechua and Aymara. Most notable of all Peru posses a very distinctive culture because of the combination of the Peruvian social structure, family conquest, inter-cultural mixing and rapid changing legacys. The natural characteristics of this country have greatly impacted Peruvians by dividing the country in multiple regions, which caused many problems for development and interactivity of uniting one society. The Andean Sierra highland that was nearly twenty thousand feet high was natures main instrument in separating Peru into compound social orders. The highlands accompanied about half of Perus population. Since the pre-Columbian times Peru has been dramatically forced to become regionally diverse and has greatly impacted the equalities of labor and the living standards of Peruvians. As a result social standards such as health, education, law, and agricultural are said to be distributed erratically across The Peruvian culture is divided viciously by nature from Aboriginal Mountain residents to imposing imperial cites. The rural communities now express their values differently from traditional practices such as owning new technology and dressing more modern that is similar to American fashion standards. However, on the other spectrum, the natives such as the Andes are upholding their ancestral traditional practices although the world is changing. If you visited these people you will find that they still operate family fields and manage the land using their bare hands and sometimes have animals to harness more vigorous duties. Like most native cultures in the United States, Peruvian natives fundamentally organize their communities by work, marriage and land-ownership. Common examples of a Peruvian society that still functions as this particularly type of community are known as the ayllu, located in Quechua. Their main tradition is known to be work exchange in which services are rendered with obligatory repayment of equal kind such gift giving in America we expect a equal repayment. (Mosley, 1992) Today because of centuries of cultural mixing most Peruvians would fall into the category known as Mestizo American Indian or European. Social divisions are not so much racially defined but are culturally defined. The best example is that today to become a Mestizo you dont have to be born into the culture, you may become one by choice and uphold their beliefs and practices. The Misti, which is noted to be the most dominant social class in the Andes share their cultural traits and are able to participate in modern activities and education. However there are other groups that are ethno linguistic that do not take part in this practice and enforce strict native rule over modernization. Overall the majority of highland people live their lives from modern benefit so that they focus on maintaining loyalty to their ancestral heritage. I find that the bright homemade costumes of native Peruvian cultures are the most intriguing. Stepping away from traditional societies of Peru the middle class is the most difficult to characterize because of the integration of modernization and city life. The economy was the ultimate cause of growth with the Peruvian middle class because of the increase of entrepreneurship and public services. It was almost obligatory for native Peruvians to move from the highlands and work to provide their families with basic resources for survivability. We can almost identify how this has affected an abundance of cultures in world history including our own country, the United States. Today Peruvian development is thought to be grossly inadequate because it cannot sustain its inhabitants. The national economy has opened a large amount of traditional market daily street trade and bargaining with market vendors. There you can find a wide range of goods from agriculture to native crafts such a beautiful native clothing and art. Many tourists come to Peru because of trade markets and find that they are indulging in the unique heritage. Each and everyday Peru is consistently becoming more stable as a society by working together to increase the strength of their culture. Peru shares many cultural characteristics as other countries but stands out for its unique practices and enriching history. Through native societies to metropolitan areas Peru continues to demonstrate the importance for culture connectivity. Many tourists such as myself would consider their art and trade exceptionally diverse which personally gives a positive impression on their society. Similar to Hawaii, Peru strives to preserve their cultural legacies by dedicated particular parts the country to natives. The miscellaneous practices of Perus culture are something all countries should learn from so that future generations will understand how people became who they are today.

Forever and Always Essay -- Descriptive Essay, Descriptive Writing

Forever and Always Some people believe in miracles. Other people argue that fate is what makes day turn into night and the waves rise high and low crashing over a ship at sea or carrying it to the shore safely. A person of faith will say that ones’ life is controlled by a higher power greater than fate itself. Shannon has heard every excuse, rhyme or reason as to what exactly wills each life changing event. She occasionally agrees, yet never disagrees for reasons that would just be impolite. It is what only she knows in her heart, and in a place that even her heart cannot reach, that wills her to live through each day and keeps her anticipating the comfort of her empty bed at night. It is here, in the glow from a single lit candle holding the scent of the ocean breeze, that Shannon separates herself from the world around her and is brought into the only place she longs to be. To begin the evening ritual, Shannon sits at her vanity, combing each section of her long blonde locks and staring into her reflection. She reminds herself of how her eyes used to sparkle. She attempts to recreate the shimmer in her hazel eyes by recalling a humorous event, or practicing her most infectious grin. Suprised that this doesn’t work (although it has never worked before) she eagerly reaches under her mattress for the photograph that will begin the second step of what will soon ease her into a soundslumber. Shannon immediately finds the grin that she has been searching for. First, on the glossy print that she holds in her hand, and soon after, appearing on her own rose colored lips. One would think that night after night of seeing the same picture would make it turn into only that, a picture. Every time Shannon gazes into this square paper world of hers she is drawn into it as if it were happening all over again. She falls into the time the picture was taken. It was a beautiful summer day, and the sky was painted blue with traces of clouds only to remind the town that it was not, in fact, a canvas, but a true day. The birds flew blissfully, calling to each other. The ocean breeze was just enough to send the smell of the fish from the dock towards the inner part of town. The town itself was quiet. Families gathered today in their homes to share the day with each other. Many of the fishermen had the day off, and although the town should be bust... ...eping over her face, grazing her lips with his smooth fingertips and moving them from there to the tip of her ear where he brings his lips gently to whisper. The feeling of his breath on her is warm and makes Shannon’s body tingle as she begins to believe that he really is in the room with her. She smells the distinct flavor of his cologne in the air and on her pillow and longs for him to wrap her in his arms. â€Å"Jay, I need you here with me.† she proclaims as if he can hear her. â€Å"I’m here. Forever and always.† He speaks and she is calmed by his tender voice. Shannon feels the embrace of his arms around her, and the whispered phrase that accompanies every nightly dream she encounters, declaring his love for her. Finally ready to be disappointed by reality, she opens her eyes only to find that he is real. As she looks at him, he slides the gold sparkling ring onto her finger and their lips find each other. The remainder of the night had come to life with passion. At dawn, when she finally fell asleep with his arms around her, she felt the grin on her face form and the comfort in her heart, knowing that he meant what he said. He would never leave again.

Reaction Paper of the Movie Rizal Essay

The movie Jose Rizal which was excellently played by Cesar Montano as the lead role was a heart-warming one that shows how Rizal runs his life. While watching the movie, I felt mixed emotions given the fact that it was made to help us, Filipinos, understand what our national hero had done for the country. It shows how Rizal really love his mother country for him to sacrificed his own life. The film also works through a series of flashback showing Rizal as a genius, a write, a doctor, an artist, a lover, a friend, a brother, a son that gives texture to his character. It shows the great explanation of the Philippine history, the nationalism and heroism in a non-violent manner, though, there were times that the characters speak in Spanish language and I couldn’t understand it unless I will read the subtitles. I could also say that the other characters weren’t having any difficulties in reciting their Spanish lines. The actors’ dedication for the film is inevitable e specially Cesar Montano who is very perfect for the role of Rizal. His values and great performance as the lead actor is impeccable and has a great impact on me as the audience of the said film. Also, the supporting casts like Jhong Hilario who played as Rizal’s servant, Jaime Fabregas as Rizal’s attorney did a great job on portraying their role fluently. They made it easy for me to understand the flow of the story. However, there are also negative comments that I must say about the movie. The plot was full of twists and turns. It is confusing to watch because of too many flashbacks and you couldn’t guess whether it is still in flashback or not. Also, some scenes are brutal, and some are not suitable for young kids such as the bed scene wherein the Spanish priest with the used of his power tried to rape a Filipino woman. They should’ve cut that scene knowing that this film is not only for old-aged viewers but also to the students who are studying the life of Rizal, particularly those who have the subject El Filibusterismo and Noli me Tangere. All in all, the movie is superbly great. It was epic, melodrama and historian. There are funny, tearful, griefs; hatred scenes that would surely make you appreciate it. The characters are unforgettable. I particularly love the last scene when Rizal fell in the ground facing the sky, having his last breath look at a beautiful surprise – it only shows that Rizal did not die in vain. His death was just the beginning of everything we aim to face the Spaniards who made us suffer. After watching the film, I couldn’t help but feel the sense of pride being him as the Philippine National Hero. There is no one like Rizal. He is a legacy of what a real Filipino is.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Essay

Dow Chemical V. US (1986) Dow Chemical company is presently efforting to reduce the CO2 emissions, increase fuel efficiency of vehicles which run with diesel engines. Dow Chemical has been successful in developing Diesel Particulate Filter   (DPF) technology that enhances the quality and efficiency of diesel engines in vehicles. Facts of the case    It was stated in the petition that Dow Chem operates on a 2,000-acre chemical plant which consists of numerous buildings with manufacturing equipment and piping conduits fixed between the various buildings.   Around the premises, there was heavy security maintained by Dow Chem, the respective petitioner. Issue – What is the case about? Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) appointed a commercial photographer to take photographs of the area from all altitudes as a part of aerial photography.   As a matter of fact, Dow Chem denied this particular activity of EPA which is why a suit was filed in Federal District Court against EPA stating that EPA violated the Fourth Amendment and exercised the powers beyond its statutes. Court decision Federal District Court stated that EPA violated Fourth Amendment by entering premises whereas Court of Appeals stated that as per Section114(a) of Clean Air Act, EPA has right to enter premises for inspection purposes [475 U.S.227,228]. Dissenting opinion Dow chem feared about the reveal of trade secrets which are supposed to be confidential and particularly photographs of aerial space, complex premises were of a great matter of concern for the Dow chemical plant whereas EPA considered only the premises of open area of the plant as a part of inspection and safety measures and not to violate any trade laws or statutory laws.    References U.S. Supreme Court DOW CHEMICAL CO. v. UNITED STATES, 476 U.S. 227 (1986) 476 U.S. 227 Accessed February 11, 2008 http://supreme.justia.com/us/476/227/case.html